Existentialism and Rebt Essay Example for Free

Existentialism and Rebt Essay During a lifetime, most individuals question the meaning of their existence at one point or another. Existential therapy aims to help individuals find purpose, have better defined goals, and live life to the fullest. Existential therapy takes into account cultural, social and political values of the client. It attempts to help the client live more deliberately, while accepting life’s unpredictable challenges and contradictions. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is complementary to existential therapy by providing techniques to help clients make changes once their awareness is increased through existential discovery. Existential therapy and REBT integrated approach to counseling can provide successful results by combining individual meaning with reasonable thinking. This empowers clients to take control of their lives. The first step in the therapy process is to help the client become aware of what changes need to be made in order to live a more fulfilling and satisfying life. This is achieved by examining one or more existential themes. In his book Existential Psychotherapy, Irwin Yalom describes four major themes that permeate existential psychotherapy: death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness. In the first theme, death, here are two major ideas that play key factors in therapy (Yalom, 1980). First of all, death and life coexist. Even though physically they are clearly separated, psychologically they exist simultaneously. Death is a natural part of the cycle of life, and as one dies, another is given an opportunity to experience life (Kaufmann, 1975). Death is a realistic threat and a part of our daily lives. Every day we are alive, we are closer to death. Frankl (2006) believes that â€Å"if there is a meaning in life at all, then there must be a meaning in suffering. Suffering is an ineradicable part of life, even as fate and death. Without suffering and death human life cannot be complete† (p. 67). Nothing in this world lasts forever. It is only natural for humans to see death as a part of life that is unavoidable. The awareness of death has a significant impact on life and â€Å"Although the physicality of death destroys man, the idea of death saves him† (Yalom, 1980, p. 30). Awareness of death allows individuals to live life more fully, authentically, and appreciate how truly precious life is. Authenticity is one of the main concepts of existentialism and is defined as being genuine, true to one’s feelings and beliefs, aware of self and surroundings, and ability to successfully deal with issues related to existence (Sharf, 2008). People come to appreciate life more, exist mindfully and purposefully. Nietzsche wrote: â€Å"He that consummates his life dies his death victoriously† (Kaufmann, 1975, p. 129). Those who live a complete and happy life are less likely to be afraid of death because they have experienced life to the fullest. A potential threat of life be taken away makes it more likely for people to appreciate and enjoy life. Without suffering how does one know pleasure? For example, someone with cancer who previously has taken life for granted may have a greater appreciation for life after beating the illness. In such cases, people feel the urgency to take pleasure in life’s every unique moment and relish the simple joys while they still can. Very often people do not value things until they are taken away or are threatened to be taken away. The second idea is that death anxiety constantly affects the way people experience their life. In addition, most anxiety comes from issues related to death and decreasing anxiety is one the major goals of psychotherapy. Anxiety can stem from many issues, such as control or fear. Fear of death is one of the significant motivators in our society. We constantly come up with new ways to avoid death by building safer vehicles, wearing protective gear, inventing new medical treatments and procedures. Self preservation is a natural instinct and anxiety related to the end of our life is an unavoidable reality. There are many reasons why individuals are afraid of death: inability to take care of dependents, pain and sadness that loved ones will feel, or fear of the afterlife. But one of the most common reasons is the fear of nothingness and loss of self (Yalom, 1980). Death anxiety can manifest itself in many different ways (Yalom, 1980). One’s feeling of missing exciting events or the desire to control the surrounding world, demonstrate this manifestation. These unhealthy thoughts help individuals ease fear of death by dealing not with the real and terrifying source of anxiety, but indirectly, through more socially acceptable actions. Many people protect themselves from death anxiety by denying it. Yalom (1980) discussed two ways that accomplish this goal: the ultimate rescuer and personal specialness. Both ideas lead people to feel that they will not be affected by misfortune like others might be. The ultimate rescuer is a type of defense mechanism leading people to believe that someone will come into their life and save them from their problems. An example of this would be a person with severe financial problems needing money to take care of health problems believing that someone or something will bring the needed money and the situation will work itself out. Personal specialness involves the belief that one is in a way different from others and therefore immune from the hardships of life. Personal specialness can be seen all around us: a healthy woman thinking cancer will never happen to her, couples believing there is no way they can have an autistic child, or a teenager driving recklessly believing that there is no way he will get in an accident and die. The awareness of finiteness enables people to appreciate the surrounding world at a much deeper level and find what it is they are meant to contribute to the world. The second theme of existential psychotherapy is freedom. Freedom and responsibility go hand in hand. Individuals who are responsible are conscious of the fact that the world is not working against them. They come to realize that their experiences are the outcomes of their own decisions. Some people may feel that their environment, their unconscious mind, or genetic make up is working against them. Existential theory takes into consideration that these sometimes uncontrollable factors have an effect on events, but do not completely determine them. Frankl (2006) wrote regarding his experiences in a concentration camp: Every day, every hour, offered the opportunity to make a decision, a decision which determined whether you would or would not submit to those powers which threatened to rob you of your very self, your inner freedom; which determined whether or not you would become the plaything of circumstances, renouncing freedom and dignity to become molded into the form of the typical inmate (p. 66). In extreme situations as this, freedom represents psychological separation from a difficult situation. In this case, a person has inner freedom to choose how he feels and what he thinks. His physical freedom and material possessions can be taken away, but his thoughts, feelings, his self, cannot. People have the freedom to make any decision they choose, are responsible for these decisions and have to be able to face the outcomes. Yalom (1980) wrote that â€Å"To be aware of responsibility is to be aware of creating one’s own self, destiny, life predicament, feelings, and if such be the case, one’s own suffering† (p. 218). Having the freedom to control one’s own destiny and â€Å"own the insight that you and only you construct your own life design† can be a heavy burden to bear, but once individuals become aware of their power and accept the challenge, they can make significant improvements and live more authentically (Yalom, 1989, p. 38). Simple awareness may not be enough for change to take place. One must be willing and committed to address the negative aspects of life and become responsible for adopting new behaviors. People must accept responsibility for their lives and decisions they have made; otherwise, growth and positive change cannot take place. The third theme of existential therapy is isolation. Yalom (1980) discusses three types of isolation: interpersonal, intrapersonal, and existential. Interpersonal isolation involves separation of self from others. Many factors can contribute to such isolation, such as personality, culture, or physical location. In this case the person does not have a social support network, is not involved in healthy relationships and may feel cut off from other people. Intrapersonal isolation takes place when a person represses certain events, separates part/parts of the psyche or no longer has pronounced personal opinions and beliefs. Yalom (1980) sums up intrapersonal isolation by saying that it â€Å"results whenever one stifles one’s own feelings or desires, accepts â€Å"oughts† or â€Å"shoulds† as one’s own wishes, distrusts one’s own judgment, or buries one’s own potential†. Lastly, existential isolation refers to the feeling of being alone in the world. Regardless of how many friends or family members one has and how closely they are involved together, the person is still isolated and has distinctive experiences of the surrounding world. This may be considered a pessimistic view of life, but it is hard to deny that each person is one of a kind, whose true feeling and experience only they can know. Isolation can be seen as a representation of individuals’ uniqueness. Even though isolation is a part of life, intimate relationships are vital to a fulfilling life. Frankl (2006) wrote â€Å"†¦love is the ultimate and the highest goal to which man can aspire†¦The salvation of man is through love and in love. I understood how a man who has nothing left in this world still may find bliss†¦in the contemplation of his beloved† (p. 37). Genuine and loving relationships, where both individuals are actively involved, provide means to deal with existential isolation and help people find a sense of self. The final theme of existential therapy is meaninglessness. Many people struggle with the idea of what the meaning of their life is. People need a reason to wake up every day, go to work, do their chores, and repeat the cycle over and over again. Lack of goals, hope and purpose, can lead to stress, depression, and even suicide. It is a natural human desire to search for order, patterns, and explanations in the world. This need for organization raises the ultimate question of why and for what one lives. The quest for the meaning of life is divided into two groups of thought: man creates meaning and man is in search of meaning. The first idea is non spiritual and is based on the fact that there is no prearranged meaning and people create their own reason to live. The second way of thought regarding meaning of life is spiritual. It states that meaning is predetermined by a higher power and is something that a person needs to find. Frankl (2006) wrote â€Å"Everyone has his own specific vocation or mission in life to carry out a concrete assignment which demands fulfillment. Therein he cannot be replaced, nor can his life be repeated. Thus, everyone’s task is as unique as his specific opportunity to implement it† (p. 109). Regardless of the origin of meaning, it helps people truly live and keep going. As discussed earlier, the themes of death, freedom, isolation and meaninglessness are used to build self-awareness in clients. Following the point when the client is committed to modify behavior, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) concepts and techniques are incorporated to make lasting changes in the client’s life. REBT therapists’ goal is to â€Å"help clients to give up their demands for perfection and to strive to develop constructive self-acceptance as well as acceptance of others† (Walen, DiGiuseppe, Dryden, 1992, p. 14) by overcoming their irrational beliefs. Irrational beliefs are unreasonable, do not represent actual events, commonly involve â€Å"black and white† thinking, lead to anxiety and prevent people from achieving their goals (Walen et al. ,1992). Within an existential theme of death, a client who has severe death anxiety and constantly avoids participating in various activities in order to avoid potential dangers, would first be guided to examine the reasons for death anxiety, and the irrational belief of death threat would be challenged by the therapist. There are six principles of REBT (Walen et al. , 1992). The core idea of the theory is that â€Å"we feel what we think† (Walen et al., 1992, p. 15). External factors do not cause people to feel a certain way, but rather people’s internal perceptions and interpretations contribute to the destructive emotional and behavioral reactions. The next principle is that irrational thinking causes the majority of emotional distress. Irrational thought patterns such as â€Å"musts†, â€Å"shoulds† and exaggerations can create extreme anxiety in individuals and make them feel out of control. The third principle states that by changing thinking patterns, the person can overcome anxiety causing feelings. Another principle discusses various factors that affect ways of thinking. According to Sharf (2008), Albert Ellis took into account biological and social factors that affect human development and susceptibility to develop irrational beliefs. Ellis believed that people have inborn drives to think irrationally and react to the environment in certain way. People are also strongly affected by their interpersonal relationships. Ellis found that if others perceive the person as worthy, the person is more likely to perceive himself as worthy, too. Our society as a whole contributes to this way of thinking by telling us that we â€Å"must† and â€Å"have to† do things a certain way. For example, parents telling kids to eat everything on their plate. This promotes the belief in children that if they do not finish a meal, they have failed. In adulthood, this can lead to obesity and other health problems, as well as irrational patterns of thought related to food. The fifth principle encourages clients to focus on the present. People may become â€Å"stuck† in the past and previously used thinking and coping patterns. By doing so, they are not able to leave behind destructive habits and move towards healthier ways of dealing with issues. Finally, REBT has an optimistic view and promotes that people can change. With hard work and determination, irrational and self-defeating thoughts can be reduced and lead to a more satisfying life. REBT uses a three part model to help clients overcome their issues: ‘A’ as activating event or adversities, ‘B’ as belief and ‘C’ as consequences. ‘A’ is the perceived unfortunate event in the person’s life which spurs self-defeating reactions. ‘B’ primarily includes believing, thinking, and also emoting and behaving in relation to ‘A’. C is characterized as the destructive consequences of ‘B’. According to Ellis (2002), many clients find it difficult to understand the ABC model as they wrongfully believe that ‘A’ directly causes ‘C’. It is important for clients to understand that their beliefs contribute significantly to the emotionally destructive consequences. It is important for individuals to focus on the adverse event and experience the entire range of emotions that occur as a result. Clients are encouraged to focus on specific thoughts that caused negative emotions, such as perceived ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’. Then, they are instructed to replace damaging thoughts with healthier ones and work to pinpoint which thoughts contribute to positive versus negative emotions. This technique allows the client to better control their thoughts, leading to more functional emotions and behaviors. It is important to help clients understand that thinking, emoting and behaving frequently happens simultaneously rather than individually. If a client is upset with a loved one, he might be feeling hurt, thinking that he is being ignored, and behaving angrily by raising his voice all at the same time (Ellis, 2002). Clients are encouraged to honestly and openly experience feelings, accept their existence and how they influence clients’ lives (Ellis, 1997). Sharf (2008) discusses Ellis’ belief in the importance of concentrating on the long-term goals, which he calls responsible hedonism. REBT believes that enjoyment is a significant part of life, but that many individuals focus on short-term pleasure, such as substance abuse, rather than concentrating on the long-term enjoyment of living a healthy life. Humanism is another core concept of REBT. Each person is viewed as a whole and goal-oriented being. Clients are encouraged to have Unconditional Self Acceptance, which includes assets and flaws. They are taught to value themselves because they are alive, regardless of the mistakes they have made, their socioeconomic status, intellectual abilities or the type of feelings they experience. Existentialism and REBT concepts have several common characteristics, which can make the use of these two therapies together more effective than individual use. This integrated approach provides an â€Å"existential framework that balances the appeal to reason with the unique human tendency to discover individual meaning† (Hutchinson Chapman, 2005, p. 146). According to Ellis (2002), there are seven main ways in which existential therapy and REBT practices are similar and therefore complement each other in achieving change in clients. First of all, both theories accept the fact that anxiety is a normal part of life. Moderate existential anxiety is what keeps people alive. The problem occurs when humans become overly concerned with certain life events and become neurotic. Second, existential theory believes that people are able to rise above potential and existing unfortunate situations. REBT also believes that people can choose to think about difficult events in such ways that do not cause distress. The third similarity is that both theories agree that it is vital to â€Å"directly and firmly show†¦clients the error in their ways† (Ellis, 2002, p. 253). Clients need to be taught skills in order to make changes to destructive thoughts and behaviors. Clients are ‘free’ to change, but might be unable to do so without concrete techniques. Another similarity is that both theories incorporate the idea that individuals have the freedom and power to be in control of their destiny. Ellis (1997) wrote: â€Å"[choice]†¦is one of the main advantages of being human: you can choose, usually, to think one thing or another† (p. 38). People have the ability to decide and control how they think, and consequently how they feel or behave in various, sometimes extremely difficult situations. They can choose to feel depressed, helpless and hopeless or take charge of a situation and focus on what they can control. The goal of purposeful living contributing to a more meaningful and fulfilling life can be seen in existential therapy and REBT. A meaningful life helps individuals become more self-actualized and increase personal awareness. With increased awareness and meaning, people can better control self-defeating thoughts and overcome existential conflicts. The next idea that existential therapy and REBT share is that there is no absolute truth. Each person’s experiences are subjective and unique occurrences. Every individual knows what is true for him only and it is difficult for people to come to an agreement regarding what is true (Kaufmann, 1975). Additionally, both theories focus on the present. It is important to work on problematic behaviors that are happening today. Past and future affect the person, but do not determine the reality. REBT techniques of staying calm and rational can help clients work logically on the issues of meaninglessness, isolation a nd death. The final similarity relates to the therapist client relationship. Existential and REBT therapists aim to be fully present with the client. They strive to empathize, relate and experience the world through the client’s eyes. Psychological health is subjective and depends on the person’s life style, culture and many other factors. However, there are a number of characteristics that can be used to define psychological health. In regard to existential theory, Sharf (2008) considers that â€Å"to be truly human, individuals must be aware of their own being-in-the-world†, which involves realization of one’s personal value, destiny, and responsibility (p. 151). Considering existential theory and REBT, a psychologically healthy person lives rationally, authentically, purposefully and accepts the uncontrollable life events. Authenticity is one of the main characteristics of a psychologically healthy person. Authenticity includes meaningful existence which allows individuals to feel alive, genuine, aware and fully present in the moment. Healthy individuals are honest with themselves and are able to accept their freedom to make positive choices, accept the outcomes of their decisions, and successfully cope with unanswered questions of their existence. Genuine and meaningful relationships with others are a significant part of the person’s life and one is able to maintain a healthy relationship without losing a sense of self. Avoidance of feelings that one ‘has to’ or ‘must’ do certain things is also vital. Psychologically healthy individuals do not overreact, overgeneralize and otherwise examine situations logically and rationally. These individuals are tolerant of difficult or undesirable situations, exhibit low frustration levels, focus on long-term goals, live purposeful and meaningful lives. The increased state of psychological health can take a long time and requires commitment and patience from the therapist and the client. According to Yalom (1989), the first step to increased psychological health is assumption of responsibility. In order for the client to change behavior patters, he must first accept that his current position is due to his own actions. For the client to change, therapist and client must find specific issues and tensions that play into the client’s life. A significant part of the therapeutic process is to facilitate the client to accept the contradictions and challenges of human existence. Therapist assists the client to set goals and find purpose in life, while accepting and rationally dealing with the obstacles that the client might have to face in the process. The main goal is to empower the client to realize his full potential, accept personal freedom, and be more aware of thinking, emoting, and behaving patterns. Clients increase personal awareness and start living authentically, with an ability to communicate effectively with others and understand the true self. In addition, clients explore what is important to them and how they can achieve what they want in life. In the process of working through life’s everyday challenges and experiences, clients explore deeper issues having to do with humanity in general, such as death, isolation, and meaning. Clients learn to better control self-defeating emotions, thoughts and behaviors. They start thinking more lucidly and rationally, which gives them the ability to experience life to the fullest. There are a number of methods and techniques to help clients improve psychological health, authenticity, and life satisfaction. Existential therapy and REBT agree that each person has a unique perception of reality. In existential therapy, an important strategy is to accept the world through the client’s eyes and allow the client to guide the course of therapy. Once the path of questioning is determined, the therapist uses Socratic dialog to help the client come to his own conclusions and decisions. This technique is a component of both existential therapy and REBT. It involves questions that help the client come to an understanding of a problem or situation or make a decision. Socratic dialog is used â€Å"to prompt the discovery of life purpose and meaning at a spiritual level†¦[as well as] challenge the inflexible shoulds and musts, absolutistic demands, self-downing, and catastrophic beliefs† (Hutchinson Chapman, 2005, p. 151). Such ways of questioning also contribute to a ‘buy-in’ from the client and improves self-discovery information retention (Walen et al. , 1992). Existential therapy and REBT take into consideration the past and future, but therapeutic change takes place in the present. By focusing on the present, the client is helped to continually self-actualize, experience his personal existence, and work through the issues preventing authentic existence. The main goal of REBT is to dispute the client’s irrational beliefs. The ABC model discussed earlier is the tool used to change the client’s dysfunctional thinking, but in the actual therapeutic process two more elements are added: ‘D’ as Disputation and ‘E’ as new effect. Once the activating event is clearly outlined, the therapist points out to the client his irrational beliefs which led to the undesirable consequence. Disputing involves detecting, discriminating and debating irrational beliefs. The therapist outlines and questions the client’s irrational beliefs, helping the client understand the destructive thinking patterns. Now the client is ready to adopt a more functional way of thinking, by replacing irrational beliefs with appropriate thoughts, therefore reducing unpleasant feelings about self and others and start living a more fulfilling life. Existential discussions can help clients discover personal freedom to change their state of existence and find more pleasure in life. Such self-awareness can make the disputing process easier by providing the client with the power and freedom to overcome self-defeating thoughts (Hutchinson Chapman, 1992). A genuine therapeutic relationship is a vital factor in existential therapy. The therapist strives to be authentically caring and validate the client’s feelings, thoughts and experiences. The client must feel comfortable expressing himself and allowing the therapist into his innermost thoughts and feelings. In order for this to happen, the therapist must communicate to the client that the client and his feeling and thoughts are fully accepted. A strong relationship also makes the client more likely to follow the therapist’s advice and trust the REBT disputing process. Although existential therapy and REBT are complementary in many ways, the integration has a number of limitations. The process counts on the client to be fairly insightful and self aware. Someone, whose intellectual abilities are not as strong, may not benefit as much from therapy. Past experiences of the client are taken into consideration, but are not actively explored. This may limit the insight achieved by the therapist and client, therefore slowing down improvement. Additionally, this integrated approach is more targeted towards individual therapy, so family systems techniques would need to be incorporated in order to accommodate families and couples. Existential therapy and REBT have many common objectives and share a number of underlying concepts. Although this integrated approach to counseling is somewhat directive, the client’s concerns and personal goals are in the center of the therapeutic process. Therapy is based on leading the client to self-discovery, authentic and rational existence. By combining themes and techniques of existential theory and REBT, clients gain the benefit of examining multifaceted existential themes with the addition of empirically supported REBT techniques. My interest in the integration of existential therapy and REBT originally came from personal beliefs and experiences. Congruent with existential theory, I have often questioned the purpose of my life and whether human beings are interconnected or isolated. I relate to the spiritually oriented existentialism and have always believed that every person has a certain calling; the difficulty only lies in finding what it is. Consistent with the ideas of REBT, I many times find myself and people around me overreacting, overgeneralizing, and otherwise making inappropriate statements and having irrational thoughts. By becoming more aware of my own existence, thoughts, beliefs and actions, I will be able to help my clients come to similar understandings and lead more fulfilling, purposeful, and authentic lives. My philosophical inclination, my strive to understand other people’s points of view and my focus on the present will provide a healthy and successful environment for clients to achieve their therapeutic goals. References Ellis, A. , Harper, R. (1997). A Guide to Rational Living. Chatsworth: Melvin Powers Wilshire Book Company. Ellis, A. (2002). Overcoming Resistance: A Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Integrated Apporach. New York: Springer Publishing Company Inc. Frankl, V. (2006). Man’s Search For Meaning. Boston: Beacon Press. Hutchinson, G. T. Chapman, B. P. Logotherapy-Enhanced REBT: An Integration of Discovery and Reason. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, Vol. 35, No. 2, 145-155 Kierkegaard: Dread and Freedom. In Kaufmann, Walter (Eds) (1975). Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sarte (pp83-120). New York: The New American Library Inc. Kierkegaard: Authority. In Kaufmann, Walter (Eds) (1975). Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sarte (pp83-120). New York: The New American Library Inc. Kierkegaard: Truth is Subjectivity. In Kaufmann, Walter (Eds) (1975). Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sarte (pp83-120). New York: The New American Library Inc. Nietzsche: The Portable Neitzche. In Kaufmann, Walter (Eds) (1975). Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sarte (pp121-133). New York: The New American Library Inc. Sharf, R. S. (2008). Theories of Psychotherapy and Counseling: Concepts and Cases. Belmont: University of Delaware, Thomson Brooks/Cole. Walen, S. , DiGiuseppe, R. , Dryden, W. (1992). A Practitioner’s Guide to Rational- Emotive Therapy. New York: Oxford University Press. Yalom, I. (1980). Existential Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books. Yalom, I. (1989). Love’s Executioner: Other Tails of Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

Laser Tissue Interaction

Laser Tissue Interaction Laser-Tissue interaction Like normal light, laser light can interact with tissue in four basic ways1 as follows: (1) Reflection: some light reflects back off the surface, its energy neither penetrating nor interacting with tissue. (2) Transmission: some (light) may be transmitted through tissue, albeit unchanged as if transparent to the laser beam and without interaction between the incident beam and the tissue. (3) Scatter: some light may penetrate the tissue and be scattered without causing a noticeable effect on the tissue2 .Scattering causes some lessening of light energy with distance, together with distortion in the beam, whereby rays proceed in an uncontrolled direction through the medium. Moreover, back-scatter can occur as the laser beam hits the tissue, most commonly in short wavelengths, e.g. diode, Nd:YAG (≠¥50% back-scatter). (4) Absorption: some light may be absorbed into a component of the tissue, whereby there will be transference of energy to the tissue, i.e. the incident energy of the beam is attenuated by the medium and transferred into another form. In clinical dentistry, depending on the value of the energy, there is conversion into heat or, in the case of very low values, photobiostimulation of receptor tissue sites (e.g. sun-bathing the stimulation of ‘tanning melanocytes by low-grade UV sunlight versus the damaging sun-burn with higher exposure values) Laser wavelength absorption and tissue composition Laser tissue interactions, as described above, are not exclusive and occur in varying proportions within tissues depending on the chemical and or molecular variation found within such complex biological systems. The degree of interaction is usually proportional to the level of absorption of a particular wavelength by tissue. Tissue elements that absorb a particular wavelength or spectrum of light energy to a high degree are called chromophores. All (organic) matter has the property of ‘absorption specificity which determines how it reacts to incident radiation. Indeed, the preferential absorption of specific wavelengths of radiant energy by chromophores within tissues accounts for the unique interactions that occur between the monochromatic light energy of lasers and various tissue elements. Laser wavelengths thus affect certain, inter-related components of the target tissue, that is: its water content; colour; and chemical composition. In dentistry, oral tissue comprises one o r more chromophores haemoglobin, melanin and allied pigmented proteins, (carbonated) hydroxyapatite, and water. Generally speaking, any predominantly pigmented tissue absorbs shorter laser wavelengths (i.e. visible and near infra-red), whereas non-pigmented tissue absorbs longer wavelengths. Consequently, absorption peaks of water and (carbonated) hydroxyapatite, coincident with Er:YAG, Er:YSGG and CO2 wavelengths, would support the potentially advantageous use of these lasers in hard tissue management. Moreover, oral soft tissues mainly comprise water, which predominantly controls the tissue effects of laser emissions within the infrared spectrum, such as CO2. Therefore, CO2 laser energy is absorbed very efficiently by tissue fluids with minimal penetration beyond the surface2. Conversely, water is comparatively transparent to the emission of the Nd:YAG laser, which accounts for its tendency to penetrate deeper into tissue. In this way, whereas CO2 wavelength might penetrate oral epithelia to a depth of 0.1-0.2 mm, Nd: YAG and diode wavelengths can result in an equivalent-power penetration of 4-6 mm.3 Light Absorption in Tissue Absorption characteristics for various wavelengths in four absorption media (oxyhaemoglobin, melanin, hydroxyapatite and water). The absorption coefficient is plotted as a function of the wavelength, and the absorption coefficient for a given material is plotted on this graph. A high absorption coefficient means the given laser wavelength is well absorbed in the selected medium. A low absorption corresponds with a greater degree of transparency allowing the light to penetrate deeper into the medium. Note that the vertical scale is logarithmic; that is, each grid line is equivalent to a change of the absorption coefficient by 1 order of magnitude (factor 10). Photobiological Effect The overriding beneficial effect of laser energy is absorption of the light by the target tissue and the transfer of laser energy, thus causing a tissue interaction (Photobiological Effect). There are four basic interactions that can occur following absorption of laser energy: (1) Photochemical (Photochemolysis): certain wavelengths of laser light are absorbed by naturally occurring chromophores or wavelength- specific light absorbing substances that are able to induce certain biochemical reactions at cellular level. Derivatives of naturally occurring chromophores or dyes have been used as photosensitizers to induce biological reactions within tissues for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Photochemical interactions include photobiostimulation, photodynamic therapy, and tissue fluorescence. Certain biological pigments, upon absorbing laser light, can fluoresce, which can be used for detecting teeth caries. Lasers can also be used in a non- surgical mode for biostimulation or more rapid wound healing, pain relief, increased collagen growth and a general anti- inflammatory effect. Photodynamic interaction is demonstrated by PAD (Photo-Activated Disinfection) in which a 635nm laser used to activate a dye solution of tolonium chloride placed in a ca rious cavity or root canal. Activation of the tolonium chloride releases oxygen species which disrupt the membranes of micro-organisms found in caries, periodontal pockets and root canals. (2) Photothermal (Photothermolysis): light energy absorbed by the tissues is transformed into heat energy which then produces tissue effects as follows: Coagulation and haemostasis: from 60oC to 70oC, this is the secondary effects through conduction of the heat generated. Photopyrolysis: from 65oC to 90oC, target tissue proteins undergo permanent morphological change (protein denaturation) as result of dissociation of covalent bonds. Photovaporolysis: at 100oC +, inter- and intra-cellular water in soft tissue and interstitial water in hard tissue is vaporised. This destructive phase transfer results in expansive volume change, which can aid the ablative effect of the laser by dissociating large tissue elements. This will be carried onto a further phase: transfer to hydrocarbon gases and production of residual carbon (carbonization).4 The amount of laser energy absorbed by the tissue largely determines the thermal interaction produced and is in turn dependant on the wavelength of the laser light to a great degree, but also on other parameters such as spot size, power density, pulse duration and frequency, and the optical properties and composition of the tissue irradiated. The CO2 (10600nm) is highly absorbed by the water content of oral soft tissues, whereby 90% of the energy is absorbed within the first 100 microns of penetrating the tissue surface5. Hence, even at relatively low power densities using a focused beam, there is rapid tissue vaporization of the water with charring and burning of the organic content of the tissue. Photothermal interaction causes the irradiated target tissue to absorb the laser energy and converts it into heat, thereby producing a direct temperature rise in the irradiated tissue volume. When this energy is applied for long enough, heat conduction will cause a temperature rise in surrounding tissues as well. Hence, thermal effects, such as coagulation necrosis, are produced indirectly in collateral areas and are one of the mechanisms responsible for haemostasis when cutting or vaporizing with a laser. (3) Thermal relaxation Heat dissipation or diffusion from the irradiated tissue site will determine the extent of collateral damage seen and is largely dependant on the thermal conductivity of the tissue. The time required for diffusion of the heat or ‘thermal relaxation time is defined as the time required for the accumulated heat energy within the tissue mass to cool to 37% of its original value6. The degree of heat conduction and rate of tissue cooling both determine the extent of collateral tissue damage for a given wavelength of laser light and tissue type. The composition of the tissue in terms of its structure, water content and vascularity will greatly determine heat conduction/tissue cooling and therefore collateral damage. Moreover, factors such as the volume and surface area of tissue irradiated will also influence the rate of heat dissipation. With continuous laser emission there is no thermal relaxation time, but with pulsed emissions there are brief periods of time allowing for heat dissipation or cooling between pulses7. Tissues should be allowed a period of cooling approximately three times their thermal relaxation time to avoid accumulation of heat energy in surrounding tissue and therefore collateral damage. This can be managed effectively using a combination of appropriate power density and pulse duration for the desired procedure8, 9. Factors that influence thermal relaxation are summarized as follows: Laser absorption characteristics of the target tissue Laser emission mode : continuous wave or pulsed emission Laser incident power Laser power density Beam movement: relative to tissue site; rapid laser beam movement will reduce heat build-up and aid thermal relaxation. Endogenous coolant: water content and vascularity of the tissue. Exogenous coolant: water, air, pre-cooling of tissue.10, 11 (4) Photomechanical and photoelectrical: These are non- thermal interactions produced by high energy, short pulsed laser light, including: photodisruption, photodisassociation, photoplasmolysis and photoacoustic interaction. Absorption of laser energy pulses results in rapid expansion or generation of shock waves that are capable of rupturing intermolecular and atomic bonds (photo-disruption or photodisassociation ). Thus, the laser beams energy is transformed into vibration or kinetic energy. A pulse of laser energy on hard dentinal tissues can produce a shock wave, which might explode or pulverize the tissue, creating an abraded crater. This is an example of the photoacoustic effect of laserlight.12 Photoplasmolysis is a process of tissue removal through the formation of electrically charged ions and particles that exist in‘plasma state, a semi-gaseous, high -energy state which is neither solid, liquid, or gas.13 This process is observed in ultra-short pulsed lasers, e.g. Nd: YAG, Er:YAG, with pulse widths of

Instructional Leadership Supervision Education Essay

Instructional Leadership Supervision Education Essay Abstract: Leadership is a discussion in every issue and everybody recognize how essential and valuable leadership is. Why some companies, teams, and schools do well as other fails? The credit or fault generally goes to the manager, coach, or principal. In school scenario the principal has to accept these consequences, as he occupies a distinct and key responsibility that has an effect on the quality of schooling. The questions about school scenario are (i) what is the main purpose of school (ii) How their students learn in the school (iii) How he coordinates all the activities i.e. students, teachers and curriculum. The focus of this article was on the theoretical basis of the instructional leadership and to review the model to build up the understanding of instructional leadership. Objectives: Following were the major objectives of the study To explain the concept of instructional leadership To review the James Weber Instructional leadership model What is leadership? Leadership is defined differently by different authors (Terry, 1960) called it the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group goals. In the context of this definition the knowledge, values, structure, and skills are necessary for a principal as a leader to inspire all members of the school community to work together toward the goal of an excellent education for all students. According to (Thomson, 1980) Leadership is best defined as getting the job done through people. This definition means that two things are necessary for effective leadership: accomplishment (getting the job done) and influencing the others (through people). According to (Weber, 1987) leadership is described as power granted with the will of the followers. It is authority readily invested in a trusted person and thus qualifies as a kind of moral and transformational power over the organization. In most definitions of leadership the two functions are generally considered indispensable to its meaning: setting directions and exercising influence. Each of these functions can be carried out in different ways, with such differences distinguishing the many models of leadership from one another.(Yukl, 1994) comments, leadership influences the interpretation of events for followers, the choice of objectives for the group or organization, the organization of work activities accomplish objectives, the motivation of followers to achieve the objectives, the maintenance of cooperative relationships and teamwork, and the enlistment support and cooperation from people outside the group or organization. He further explained the popular distinction between doing things right (management) and doing right things (leadership) as largely meaningless: accomplishing success as a leader, requires doing right things right. What is Instructional Leadership? (Debevoise, 1984) encompasses Instructional leadership as those measures that a principal takes, or assigns to others, to raise growth in student learning and consists of following tasks: describing the purpose of schooling; setting school-wide goals; providing the resources needed for learning to occur; supervising and evaluating teachers; coordinating staff development programs; and creating collegial relationships with and among teachers. Student Learning Instructional Leadership Supervision Teacher Development Teacher Performance Figure -A The above figure depicts that Instructional leadership consists of principal behaviors that set high expectations and clear goals for student and teacher performance, monitor and provide feedback regarding the technical core (teaching and learning) of schools, provide and promote professional growth for all staff members, and help create and maintain a school climate of high academic press. (Hoy Hoy, 2003) explained that the principal must communicate a clear vision on instructional excellence and continuous professional development consistent with the goal of the improvement of teaching and learning. The instructional leaders are listeners as well as talkers; they are collaborators with teachers and students, whose needs present the most important demands in an instructional role. The leadership process is interpersonal as well as dynamics. Particularly it becomes dynamics when the principals are accountable for whole instructional program. As instructional leader the principal is the pivotal within the school who affects the quality of individual teacher instruction, the height of student achievement, and the degree of efficiency in school functioning. According to (Mendez, 1989) there are three major forces that serve to shape and describe a school the public, the staff and the students and that these forces interact through curriculum. The role of the principal is to manipulate these forces in order to maximize the quality of instruction. The three key elements of learning: Teacher, students and curriculum Teacher Curriculum Student Instructional leadership is a complex task, it means that becoming a leader of leaders- learning and working with others i.e. teachers, students and parents to improve the instructional quality and curriculum. A Model of Instructional Leadership This is a model presented by James Weber (1987) which is based on two assumptions. The principal is the main instructional leader. The principal works with the leadership functions that are sometime shared and sometime not sheared. The functions of the Webers model are as under 1. Setting Academic Objectives A principal who is an instructional leader provides guidance for the school program, and describe the objectives to the general understanding. Vision for success (Leithwood, Doris, Alicia, 1993) and his colleagues found in a study that teachers commitment to change in instructional programs was affected the most by leadership that gave direction, purpose, and meaning to their work, e.g. the purpose of the school is to educate all students to high levels of academic performance. The principals responsibility is to ensure that the school has a clear academic mission and communicate it to the staff, which is focused on the academic progress of the students. 2. Organizing the Instructional Program After setting the goals for the school, the next step by instructional leader is to develop the strategies for bringing that goals into reality by allocating the staff, student grouping, and organizing the curriculum. These also involve the collaborative planning between instructional leader, students and parents. e.g. decision to place a student in one class or another. Certainly, the decision to place a student in one or another classroom, study group, or program is a decision that involves teachers, principals and the parents. The following are the some principals behavior that proved generally effective. Listen actively to staff and faculty ideas and produces opportunities for staff to implement innovative coaching arrangements. Make available resources and a encouraging environment for collaborative planning. Organize planning sessions to discuss grouping and scheduling arrangements with staff. Utilize staff recommendations. Keeps staff informed of policy changes. Expands options by varying periods in school day and days in cycle. 3. Supervision and Evaluation The most important task of principals instructional leadership is teachers supervision and evaluation. Instructional leadership means very little unless leaders are willing and able to observe teachers, offer advice about problems, and make formative evaluations that support and pinpoint areas to improve. Supervisors must have the knowledge of curriculum and instruction to know what to look for. According to (Gardner, 1988) To help others believe in themselves is one of a leaders highest duties. Following are the some tips that are effective for supervision. Classroom observations will be used to observe what is actually going on in the class rooms. What is the teacher and what are students are actually performing. Meets with teachers after each visit to discuss what was observed. Encourages teacher to express feelings and opinions about observational data and class activities. Offers teacher alternatives teaching techniques and explanations of class room events. Give praise for specific development of teachers skill if observed. Recommends resources and training programs in areas in which teacher need to improve. 4. Protecting Instructional Time and Program A study by (Cusick, 1973) found that 200 minutes of a students normal school day were spending on routine or maintenance tasks. He noted that the time spent actively engaged with some teacher over a matter of cognitive importance may not exceed twenty minutes a period for five periods a day. This is a high estimate. I would say that if an average student spent an hour to one and half hours involved on subject matter that was a good day. Teachers use instructional time for taking attendance, distributing materials entering and leaving the classroom, late start or early ending or such non classroom activities as field trips etc. grouping practices, instructional strategies, and the size of the class can all determine how time is spent in classrooms. Finally, achievement and instructional time both suffer when students are not in school or find it hard to concentrate because of disciplinary problems in the environment. Truancy and absenteeism can arise from a great variety of social and personal conditions, ranging from poverty and peer group influence to boredom and poor academic background. Discipline problems often emerge from conflicts, misunderstanding about rules, or the absence of clear boundaries for behaviors. Following are some of the behaviors associated in the research with increasing academic learning time (that is, time spent learning). The list focuses two crucial dimensions for learning time: ensuring c lass attendance and allocated time for instruction. For improving attendance Identify problems in enforcing rules on attendance and discipline observe that policies are clearly communicated to the staff members Put together community support particularly with parents Help teachers to set up a reward system for good attendance Distribute duty with teachers in informing parents of class absence. Allocated time for instruction Holds staff meeting to discuss common problems in instructional planning and offer solutions Protects classroom instructional time from interruption Insists on observing schedule Expects teachers to start and end classes on time, using the full allocated time for instruction Streamlines clerical tasks so that teachers can perform them more quickly. Visits classrooms to observe teachers and students 5. Creating a Climate for Learning All the important factors that appear to affect students learning possibly having the greatest influence is the set of beliefs, values, and attitudes that administrators, teachers, and students hold about learning. When a staff commits to support specific values, the concept of school improvement moves from the future to the present, and from the abstract to the concrete. So important is learning climate that it has been defined as the standard, viewpoint, and attitudes reflected in institutional patterns and behavior routine that improve student learning. The attitude that students shape about academic learning come, at least in part, from the adults in the school. It is clear that the norms for learning come from the staffs requirement of students: the amount of time needed for studying, the amount of work assigned, the degree of independent work that students can do, the degree of attentiveness students feel about the work given to them. High expectations are the fulcrum point that instructional leaders can use to get involved teachers, students and parents away from unhelpful unencouraging attitudes. Following are elements which are used to raise or lower the expectations Amount and quality of praise for correct answers Actual amount of teaching that students receive Content covered Teacher encouragement and support Teacher assistance and willingness to help Wait time Response opportunity factor (No of times students are called on) 6. Monitoring Achievement and evaluating programs It is a primary task of instructional leaders to assess and revise the instructional programs in schools. As in the case of supervising and evaluating teachers, whole programs can be reviewed for planning, objectives, success in reaching the objectives, and particular successes and problems. Ultimately the success of any educational program comes down to the performance of the students. Are they reaching the objectives proposed? Where are they failing and why? The more specifically that problems can be identified, the more successfully the learning problems can be remedied or traced to particular objectives, units, or course activities. Supervision and Teacher Development: Ernest Boyer (in Sparks, 1984) observed that when you talk about school progress, you are talking about people development. Thats the only aspect to improve schools unless you mean painting the buildings and fixing the floors. But thats not the school, thats the shell. The school is people, so when we talk about excellence or improvement or progress, were really talking about the people who make up the building. Focusing on people is the most useful way to change any organization. In fact, it can be claimed that organizations do not change, only persons change. It is only when a sufficient number of people within an organization change that the organization can be transformed. So, supervision means helping workers by offering professional advice and technical support in speed up efficiency and improving effectiveness of the process of production and product itself. Support and evaluation are the two major function of the instructional supervision. Support provides the support to improve the teaching process in terms of effective use of text books helping materials and methodologies needed for the individual needs of the students. Evaluation is the process of collecting the information for improvement in instruction and analyzing the data which then be used to improve the quality. If this assumption that people are the key to school improvement is correct, then it follows that the fundamental role of the principal is to help create the conditions which enable a staff to develop so that the school can achieve its goals more effectively. In short, a key to school improvement is the willingness and ability of principals to assume the role of staff developers who make it their mission to alter the professional practices, beliefs, and understandings of school personnel toward an articulated end. Supervision and teacher development go hand in hand. Supervision provides support and help to teachers. Principals have a responsibility to help teachers, improve their practice and to hold them accountable for meeting their commitments to teaching and learning. These responsibilities are usually referred to as supervision. Supervision enhances teacher development. The principal should keep in mind that what actions should be taken to bring about greater understanding of te aching and learning? Principals must encourage teachers to acquire new skills, support them during the inevitable frustrations, and recognize their efforts. Procedures must be in place to gather data on the impact of staff development initiatives, and principals must publicly celebrate indicators of improvement in order to help sustain those initiatives. Supervision is primarily formative and collegial, being concerned with improving teaching effectiveness. It is also important that principals be committed to continuous improvement. Schools can become learning organizations capable of significant change only if those within them recognize that school improvement is a complex, ongoing process rather than a task to be completed. While it is important that principals celebrate the attainment of improvement goals, it is even more important that such celebrations serve as motivators for staying the course rather than signal that the improvement process has ended. Most importantly, principals must not mistake congeniality with collegiality. They must strive to create a culture in which teachers talk about teaching and learning; observe each other teach; plan, design, research, and evaluate the curriculum, and teach each other what they have learned about their craft.

Anti Death Penalty Essay -- essays research papers fc

Disasters in Death Introduction I. Roosevelt Collins, a black man in Alabama, was convicted of rape, sentenced to death, and executed in 1937. Roosevelt testified that the â€Å"victim† who was white had consented to sex, which caused a near-riot in the courtroom. The all-white jury deliberated for only FOUR minutes. Later interviews with several jurors revealed that although they believed the act was consensual, they also thought that he deserved death simply for â€Å"messin’ around† with a white woman. Even the judge, off the record, admitted his belief that Roosevelt was telling the truth, QUOTE: â€Å"An innocent man went to his death.† Horace Dunkins was executed on July 17, 1989. His attorney never told the jury he was mentally retarded, with an IQ estimated at 65. When newspapers reported this several years later, one juror told the press she would not have voted for the death penalty had she known of his retardation. The accomplice to this crime w as given a life sentence. II. Everyone has their own opinion of the Death Penalty. The problem is, most United States citizens do not have the facts. As long as the death penalty is a form of punishment, we all should be aware of this information†¦the correct information, and not just what crime the â€Å"Dead Man Walking† committed. III. Myself, Chandra, Steve, and Geoff have done extensive research on the subject of corporal punishment and will discuss those findings with you today. IV. The Death Penalty is a costly, immoral, and imperfect form of punishment. Before Americans chant â€Å"Death† for a moral wrong, we should make sure that we are right. V. Today we will discuss some of the problems with the death penalty, solutions and alternatives to it, and even give you a glimpse into how our future America will be if we continue this immoral deterrent. Chandra will share with us three of the major problems with the death penalty. Steve will discuss some soluti ons and alternatives to corporal punishment. Finally, Geoff will give us some insight how the death penalty has failed as a deterrent and will continue to poison our lives in the future and what we can do to change things. Transition: Chandra will begin by explaining three major concerns with the death penalty. Body of Speech I. First Main Point (Need-Problem): The Death Penalty has three major problems: the cost, immoral issues, and erroneous executions. a. Supporting ... ...h this†¦According to a webpage from ACLU Marquis de Lafayette, speaking to the French Chamber of Deputies in 1830, years after having witnessed the executions of the French Revolution said this†¦ "I shall ask for the abolition of the punishment of death until I have the infallibility of human judgment demonstrated to me." I couldn’t have said it better than that. Bibliography References: Alternatives to the Death Penalty. [Online}. www.cuadp.org/altern.htm. (1998). Amnesty International USA. [Online]. Amnesty International Inc. www.amnesty-usa.org/abolish/index.html. (1999, November 23). Appeals Unlimited. [Online]. Appeals Unlimited/AUSoft. www.appeals.com/ deathpenalty.html. Campaign to End the Death Penalty. [Online]. www.nodeathpenalty.org/fivereasons.html. (1999, October 1). Economics of Capital Punishment, The. [Online]. www.mindspring.com/~ phporter/econ.html. (1999). Death Penalty Focus. (1999, April 24). Cost of the Death Penalty and Myths and Facts. [Online]. www.deathpenalty.org. (version on November 18, 1999). Illinois Wrongful Capital Murder Convictions. [Online]. www.sun.soci.niu.edu/~critcrim/wrong/illmurder.html. (1999, February). Word Count: 1622

The Cause of Death in All Quiet on the Western Front :: All Quiet on the Western Front Essays

The Cause of Death in All Quiet on the Western Front Erich Maria Remarque's ALL QUIET ON THE WESTERN FRONT is a very interesting and true-to-heart novel based in the first world war where many men and women died because someone called them the enemy. The main character is Paul Baumer, a nineteen year old man who is swept into the war, along with his friends, not one day before he is out of school. They are sent to the front to "protect the fatherland" or Germany as it is called. Paul and his friends go from this idealistic opinion to disillusionment throughout the book as they discover the truth that the enemy is just like them, and Paul's friends start being killed one-by-one. This novel is a gripping account of how war is most of the time bloody and horrid. The few who came out of this war were not the people they were when they left. They become pale and emotionless, without feeling or thought. Some killed themselves, they had experienced ultimate horror, the horror of war. The novel starts two years after Paul and his friends first reached the front and then goes back and forth between present and past. The main topics throughout the book is the change from idealism to disillusionment, the loss of Paul's friends, and especially the loss of Paul's innocence. The change from idealism to disillusionment is really the driving force behind the novel. From young school boys, listening to their schoolmaster asking "Won't you join up comrades?"(11) to "weary, broken"(294) men, idealism and disillusionment play a major role on Paul's decisions and thoughts. For example, on the second page of the novel, Paul says, "It would not be such a bad war if only one could get a little more sleep." (2) Later in the book, a disillusioned Paul says of the same war, "I see how people are set against one another and in silence, unknowingly, foolishly, obediently, innocently slay one another."(263) Even though he has been in the war two years, the first quote shows how Paul's idealism is still strong. In the second quote, Paul sees the war for what it truly is, a waste of time, food, money, and young men. The

5 R’s Strategy Essay

It is proven that stress has a major effect on our overall health. In order to live the healthiest possible, people must find ways to eliminate or reduce the stress in their daily lives. The PowerPoint we are to reflect on provides a great method for coping with stress. According to the PowerPoint, adopting the 5 R’s is the best way to manage daily stress. These 5 â€Å"R’s† stand for reorganize, rethink, reduce, relax, and release. These â€Å"R’s† are different strategies that can be used together or independently to cope with stress. The first â€Å"R â€Å", reorganize, focuses on reorganizing yourself into a healthy, custom lifestyle. This strategy suggests the importance of making life easier on you. For instance, if you take things one at a time, plan events ahead of time, and do your best while letting go of the outcome, your stress/anxiety level will decrease significantly. By reorganizing your priorities you’re ultimately eliminat ing long term stress. See more: The Issues Concerning Identity Theft Essay The next â€Å"R† strategy that can be used to cope with stress is rethink. In order to rethink, a person must start from within. The rethink strategy is all about charging the positive energy within ourselves. By using daily affirmations, visualizing your goal, talking about negative feelings, or even journal writing we can change our way of thinking to help block the stress our of our minds. The third â€Å"R† used to shrink the stress is reduce. In order to reduce stress a person must be assertive and practice time management. With this strategy you can either avoid or abolish a stressor. The next â€Å"R† mentioned is relax, and is another effective way to manage stress. This is probably the easiest strategy to implement. This strategy calls for play time and ultimately taking time out of the day to appreciate you. This strategy to me stresses to simple fact that life is short but sweet for certain, and we should stop and appreciate it. The last â€Å"R† in the 5 R’s model is release. This can be achieved by walking the dog, taking a yoga class, hitting a pillow, or even screaming. Anyway to release the tension out of your body can greatly reduce the buildup of stress in the body. In my opinions these strategies are all interrelated. I try to use all of these strategies on a daily basis; however, there are two â€Å"R’s† that I have a hard time implementing in my daily stress struggle. Reorganizing and rethinking are the two strategies that I constantly need to remind myself to use. I think they are hard for me, because they are the two hardest strategies to make use of. It’s very hard sometimes to step back, take a look at the mess you created, and reorganize it. In the face paced world that we live in taking things slow isn’t really an option sometimes. For me one of the biggest stressors in my life is taking on too much. I’ll have a big list of things to do, and they will all catch up to me at the same time. I know that I can reorganize and eliminate a lot of this stress by trying to tackle a problem one at a time and accepting the outcome as it falls. Rethink is also a difficult strategy for me. This is because I am usually very hard on myself even over the smallest things. All this inner negative dialogue eventually brings my anxiety level to a tipping point, and I freak out and have a break down. I try to counteract this process by meditating and being nicer to myself. I’m also learning that it’s ok to ask for help, and rely on others not to respond negatively to it. To conclude I think the 5 R’s model is a great bade model to cope with stress, however, I think the hard part is remembering to use it in stressful situations.

Singapore’s Political, Economic, and Social

I will be conducting my research paper Singapore Political, Economic, and Social Organization. The method that I will use to gather my information will be ethnology. Ethnology is Comparative study of cultures with the aim of presenting analytical generalizations within the context of that society. Singapore is a postindustrial society that has a parliamentary republic with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government representing Constitution. Singapore officially gaining sovereignty in 1965, its politics has been dominated by the People’s Action Party (PAP). Singapore, under the leadership of the PAP, possesses a distinct political culture: authoritarian, pragmatic, rational and legalistic. PAP leadership consisted of English lawyers and Chinese pro-communist trade union leaders. Unlike the western country (United States) that is run by politicians, Singapore is not run by politicians, but by a social system that where power is gained through skills, performances, and loyalty to the nation and not by politician’s policies. Singapore as has supremacy of government-controlled companies not like their western country counterparts. The reason why PAP stayed in power is due to popular support won by economic growth. Singapore raised public awareness, and stimulates public interest and debate, in economic issues is a factor of economic growth. Economic performance of Singapore depends on its mode of economic organization, natural resources, climate, and history. Singapore witnessed the unexpected economic development of vast potential for tin, rubber, oil palm, and tobacco, for Singapore is one of the largest ports in the world. Singapore is a postindustrial society where the government has invested billions in infrastructure and aims to recruit the best researchers in all modern fields of technological endeavor (Nowak & Laird, 2010). This brought immigrate from the Philippines, Indonesia, and Southeast Asia to Singapore for work. By 2006, there were approximately 580,000 lower–skilled foreign workers and 90,000 skilled foreign workers in Singapore (Yeoh, 2007). In addition, 60 percent of Singapore's factory workers are Malaysian citizens, who cross the shared border daily (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Unlike the westerner country, Singapore required that workers must take a pregnancy test and STD test regularly. Again Singapore isn’t like their westerner counterparts when it comes to unemployment. Unemployed workers must return to their home country after a short period of job hunting.